Editing Internet

{{Quote|''The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location.''<ref>Barry M. Leiner et al., "A Brief History of the Internet," at 1 ([http://archive.today/1997.04.16-044640/http://info.isoc.org/internet-history full-text]).</ref>}}

{{Quote|''The Internet is America's most important platform for economic growth, innovation, competition, free expression, and broadband investment and deployment.''<ref>[[Federal Communications Commission]], Protecting and Promoting the Open Internet NPRM (May 15, 2014) ([http://www.fcc.gov/document/protecting-and-promoting-open-internet-nprm full-text]).</ref>}}

{{Quote|''The digital world can be an environment rich in humanity, a network not of wires but of people. The Internet, in particular, offers immense possibilities for encounter and solidarity. This is something truly good. A gift from God.''<ref>Message of Pope Francis for the 48th World Communications Day (June 1, 2014) ([http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/messages/communications/documents/papa-francesco_20140124_messaggio-comunicazioni-sociali.html full-text]).</ref>}}

== Definitions ==

=== Communications Decency Act ===

The '''Internet''' is

{{Quote|[t]he international [[computer network]] of both federal and nonfederal [[interoperable]] [[packet switched data networks]].<ref>47 U.S.C. §230.</ref>}}

=== COPPA ===

The '''Internet''' is  

{{Quote|collectively the myriad of [[computer]] and [[telecommunications]] facilities, including equipment and operating [[software]], which comprise the [[interconnected]] world-wide [[network]] of [[network]]s that employ the [[Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol]], or any predecessor or successor [[protocol]]s to such [[protocol]], to [[communicate]] [[information]] of all kinds by [[wire]], [[radio]], or other methods of [[data transmission|transmission]].<ref>16 C.F.R. § 312.2.</ref>}}

=== Federal Networking Council ===

The '''Internet''' is

{{Quote|the global information system that &mdash;

:(i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the [[Internet Protocol]] ([[IP]]) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons;
:(ii) is able to support [[communications]] using the [[Transmission Control Protocol]]/[[Internet Protocol]] ([[TCP/IP]]) suite or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or other [[IP]]-[[compatible]] [[protocol]]s; and
:(iii) provides, uses or makes [[accessible]], either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the [[communications]] and related [[infrastructure]] described herein.<ref>FNC Resolution: Definition of "Internet" (Oct. 24, 1995) ([http://www.nitrd.gov/fnc/Internet_res.html full-text]).</ref>}}

=== General ===

An '''internet''' (lower case) is a set of [[interconnect]]ed [[computer network]]s.

The '''Internet''' (capitalized to distinguish it from the  generic term) is an international, [[distributed network|distributed]], [[interoperable network|interoperable]], [[packet-switched network]]. These characteristics enables millions of private and public [[computer]]s around the world to communicate with each other. These [[network]]s are connected together with equipment such as [[router]]s, [[bridge]]s, and [[switch]]es. This [[interconnection]] of multiple [[computer network]]s, which otherwise would function only as a series of independent and isolated islands, gives rise to the term "Internet" as we know it today.

"[T]he [[internet]] is a very large and complex organization of [[network]]s that utilize [[protocol]]s to relay [[data]] from one [[network device]] to another resulting in the [[transmission of data]] to an [[end user]]."<ref>Centripetal Networks, Inc. v. Cisco Sys, Inc., 2020 WL 5887916, at *6 (E.D. Va. Oct. 5, 2020).</ref>

=== Washington state law ===

The '''Internet''' is

{{Quote|collectively the myriad of [[computer]] and [[telecommunications]] facilities, including [[equipment]] and [[operating software]], that comprise the [[interconnect]]ed world wide [[network]] of [[network]]s that employ the [[transmission control protocol/internet protocol]], or any predecessor or successor [[protocol]]s to such [[protocol]], to communicate [[information]] of all kinds by [[wire]] or [[radio]].<ref>Wash. Rev. Code 19.190.010(9).</ref>}}

== Size of the Internet ==

"In 2005, the number of [[Internet user]]s reached 1 billion worldwide. This number surpassed 2 billion in 2010 and crested over 3 billion in 2014."<ref>Internet Live Stats, Internet Users ([http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users/ full-text]).</ref>

Internet penetration continent by continent varies from 3.6% in Africa to 69.7% in North America.<ref>[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats.]</ref> There are more than 165 million [[website]]s.

The Indexed Web contains at least 5.54 billion pages.<ref>The Size of the World Wide Wed (the Internet) ([http://www.WorldWideWebSize.com full text]).</ref>

== Historical development ==

{{Quote|''It seems reasonable to envision, for a time 10 or 15 years hence, a 'thinking center' that will incorporate the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval.''

''The picture readily enlarges itself into a network of such centers, connected to one another by wide-band communication lines and to individual users by leased-wire services. In such a system, the speed of the computers would be balanced, and the cost of the gigantic memories and the sophisticated programs would be divided by the number of users.''}}

::::::::::::::&mdash; J.C.R. Licklider, [http://memex.org/licklider.pdf Man-Computer Symbiosis] (1960).

=== Pre-Internet networks ===

Earlier [[computer network]]s were centrally “switched,” so that all messages between any two points on the [[network]] were sent through the central switching [[computer]]. These [[network]]s are today called [[star network|“star” networks]], because there is a central point in the [[network]] &mdash; the central switching [[computer]] &mdash; that has wires “radiating” out to all other [[computer]]s. Though all [[computer network]]s of the time were “star” shaped in their [[architecture]], different [[switching]] technologies were often employed by each of them. 

In the early 1960s, the [[Department of Defense]], like other [[computer network]] [[user]]s, relied on star-shaped [[network]]s for military [[communication]]. The [[DoD]] understood, however, that those [[network]]s had at least two problems. First was that they were highly [[vulnerable]]. Anything that rendered the central switching computer inoperative &mdash; whether a bomb, sabotage, or just “[[down time]]” &mdash; would simultaneously render the entire [[network]] inoperative. Second, because different star [[network]]s used different [[technologies]] for switching [[message]]s internally, they could not [[communicate]] with each other. Messages were confined to the [[network]] from which they originated.

In 1964, a researcher at the Rand Corporation, Paul Baran, designed a computer-communications [[network]] that had no hub, no central switching station, and no governing authority. In this [[system]], each [[message]] was cut into tiny strips and stuffed into "electronic envelopes" called [[packet]]s. each marked with the address of the [[sender]] and the intended [[receiver]]. The [[packet]]s were then released like confetti into the web of [[interconnected computer]]s, where they were tossed back and forth over high-speed wires in the general direction of their destination and reassembled when they arrived. Baran's [[packet switching]] [[network]], as it came to be called, became the technological underpinnings of the Internet.

=== Development of the Internet ===

:::{{Quote|''We are on the verge of a revolution that is just as profound as the change in the economy that came with the industrial revolution. Soon electronic networks will
allow people to transcend the barriers of time and distance and take advantage of global markets and business opportunities not even imaginable today, opening up a new world of economic possibility and progress.''

::::::::::::::&mdash; Vice-President Al Gore (1997).}}

The Internet developed out of research efforts funded by the U.S. [[Department of Defense]] [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]] ([[DARPA]]) (later renamed "[[ARPA]]") in the 1960s and 1970s to create and test [[interconnected]] [[computer network]]s that would not have the two drawbacks noted above.<ref>''See generally'' David D. Clark, "The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols," Computer Comm. Rev., Aug. 1988, at 106 ([http://nms.csail.mit.edu/6829-papers/darpa-internet.pdf full-text]); Barry M. Leiner, ''et al.,'' A Brief History of the Internet ([http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml full-text]).</ref> Its purpose was to allow [[defense contractor]]s, universities, and [[DOD]] staff working on defense projects to [[communicate]] [[electronic]]ally and to share the [[computing resources]] of the few powerful, but geographically separate, [[computer]]s of the time.<ref>"A widely held view is that the Internet was funded by the [[Department of Defense]] to create a [[network]] that would survive a nuclear attack. This view is false, an urban myth, which persists to this day. The true motivation for creating the Internet back then was . . . to allow us to share resources across the net so that we could conduct research in [[computer science]]. Leonard Kleinrock, "The Internet Rules of Engagement: Then and Now," at note 3. ([http://web.archive.org/web/20070722223308/http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/PS/paper224.pdf full-text]).</ref>

In September 1969, a one-[[node]] [[packet-switched]] [[network]] was created at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). Shortly thereafter four [[node]]s were installed and operating effectively.<ref>The four-[[node]] [[network]] was completed December 5, 1969, and connected the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), the Stanford Research Institute, the University of California–Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. UCLA sent the first transmission to the [[Stanford Research Institute]] on October 29, 1969 at 22:30 PST. Mitch Waldrop, "DARPA and the Internet Revolution," in DARPA: 50 Years of Bridging the Gap 83 (2008) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20081207052200/http://www.darpa.mil/Docs/Internet_Development_200807180909255.pdf full-text]).</ref>

[[File:Fournode-2_lowres.jpg|right|300px]]

[[ARPA]] created a standard format for [[electronic message]]s that could be used between [[network]]s to connect them in spite of internal differences;<ref>The first network [[e-mail]] using the “username@hostname” format was sent in 1971. ''Id.''</ref> and it devised an [[interconnection]] method that was based on many decentralized switching [[computer]]s. Any given message would not travel over a fixed path to a central [[computer]]. Rather, it would be “switched” among many different [[computer]]s until it reached its destination.<ref>"[N]o one master computer [was] responsible for sorting the packets and routing them to their destination." ''Id.''</ref> The [[network]] designers set a limit on the size of a single [[message]]. If longer than that limit, a message would be broken up into smaller pieces called "[[packet]]s" that would each be [[route]]d individually. This new type of [[network]] switching was called "[[packet switching]]."

By creating a [[system]] that relied on many decentralized [[computer]]s to handle [[message]] [[routing]], rather than one central [[computer]] as was the method for star-shaped networks, [[ARPA]] produced a [[network]] that could still operate even if many of its individual [[computer]]s [[malfunction]]ed or were damaged.<ref>"However, this [[redundancy]] has its limits; only a finite number of paths connect any given point to the rest of the [[system]]. Also, geography and economics mean that some locations have a high concentration of [[Internet]] facilities while others only have few." [[The Internet Under Crisis Conditions: Learning from September 11]], at 12.</ref> [[ARPA]] [[implement]]ed a [[prototype]] [[network]] called "[[ARPANET]]" to test out and continue development of this new technology.

[[File:Net71-2_lowres.jpg|right|700px]]

::::::::::Logical map of the ARPANET, April 1971

By the mid-1970s, [[computer scientist]]s had developed several [[software]] [[communications]] [[standard]]s &mdash; or [[protocol]]s &mdash; for [[connect]]ing [[computer]]s within the same [[network]]. At about the same time, [[ARPANET]] scientists developed a [[protocol]] for connecting different [[network]]s to each other, called the [[Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol]] ("[[TCP/IP]]") [[software]] suite. This approach requires that individual [[network]]s be [[connect]]ed together by [[gateway interface device]]s, called [[switch]]es or [[router]]s. Thus, [[interconnected network]]s are, in effect, a series of [[router]]s [[connect]]ed by [[transmission link]]s. [[Packet]]s of [[data]] are passed from one [[router]] to another, via the [[transmission link]]s.

By 1977, the ARPANET had 111 [[host]]s. Since many universities and research facilities on the ARPANET later connected their [[local area network]]s to the ARPANET, it eventually became the core [[network]] of the ARPA Internet, an internetwork of many [[network]]s using the [[Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol]] ([[TCP/IP]]) communication language as the underlying architecture. ARPANET was very important in the development of the Internet. In its time it was the largest, fastest, and most populated part of the Net.

In 1981, the [[NSF]] provided a grant to establish the [[Computer Science Network]] ([[CSNET]]) to provide networking services to all university computer scientists.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the [[interconnection]] of [[computer network]]s using [[TCP/IP]] continued to grow, spurred by uses such as [[e-mail]].<ref>Barry M. Leiner, ''supra'' ("Thus, by 1985, Internet was already well established as a technology supporting a broad community of researchers and developers, and was beginning to be used by other communities for daily computer communications.  [[Electronic mail]] was being used broadly across several communities.").</ref> 

Unrelated to [[ARPA]]'s work on this [[packet switching]] technology, at about the same time the [[National Science Foundation]] ([[NSF]]) funded the creation of several [[supercomputer]] sites around the country. There were far fewer [[supercomputer]]s than scientists and researchers interested in using them. [[NSF]] understood that it would be important to find ways for researchers to use these [[computer]]s "remotely," that is, without having to travel physically to the [[supercomputer]] site. [[NSF]] was aware of the work going on with the [[ARPANET]], and determined that that [[network]] might provide the sort of access methods needed to link researchers to the [[supercomputer]]s.

The military portion of [[ARPANET]] was integrated into the [[Defense Data Network]] ([[DDN]]) in the early 1980s. In 1985, [[NSF]] announced a plan to [[connect]] one hundred universities to the Internet, in addition to five already-existing [[supercomputer]] centers located around the country to provide greater [[access]] to high-end [[computing resource]]s. Recognizing the increasing importance of this [[interconnect]]ed [[network]] to U.S. competitiveness in the sciences, however, [[NSF]] embarked on a new program with the goal of extending [[Internet access]] to every science and engineering researcher in the country. 

In 1986, [[NSF]], in conjunction with a consortium of private-sector organizations, completed a new long-distance, [[wide-area network]], dubbed the "[[NSFNET]]" [[backbone]]. Although private entities were now involved in extending the Internet, its design still reflected [[ARPANET]]'s original goals. [[NSFNET]] connected a variety of local university [[network]]s and hence enabled nationwide access to the new [[supercomputer]] centers. [[NSFNET]] connected the [[supercomputer]] centers at 56,000 [[bits per second]] &mdash; the speed of a typical [[computer modem]] today. In a short time, the [[network]] became congested and, by 1988, its links were upgraded to 1.5 [[megabits per second]]. A variety of regional research and education networks, supported in part by [[NSF]], were connected to the [[NSFNET]] [[backbone]], thus extending the Internet’s reach throughout the United States.

The idea of calling this sort of [[network]] an "Internet" reflects the fact that its first use was conceived primarily to allow an [[interconnection]] among existing [[incompatible]] [[network]]s; in its early incarnations, the Internet was viewed less as a "[[network]]" for its own sake, in other words, and more as a means to [[connect]] other [[network]]s together.

Creation of [[NSFNET]] was an intellectual leap. It was the first large-scale implementation of Internet technologies in a complex environment of many independently-operated [[network]]s. [[NSFNET]] forced the [[Internet community]] to iron out technical issues arising from the rapidly increasing number of [[computer]]s and to address many practical details of operations, management and conformance.

[[ARPANET]] was taken out of service in 1990, but by that time [[NSFNET]] had supplanted [[ARPANET]] as a national [[backbone]] for an "Internet" of worldwide [[interconnect]]ed [[network]]s. In 1991, the [[National Science Foundation]] lifted the restrictions on the commercial use of the Internet.

[[ARPANET]]'s influence continued because [[TCP/IP]] replaced most other [[wide-area network|wide-area computer network]] [[protocol]]s, and because its design, which provided for generality and flexibility, proved to be durable in a number of contexts. At the same time, its successful growth made clear that these design priorities no longer matched the needs of [[user]]s in certain situations, particularly regarding accounting and resource management.

[[NSFNET]] usage grew dramatically, jumping from 85 million [[packet]]s in January 1988 to 37 billion [[packet]]s in September 1993. To handle the increasing [[data traffic]], the [[NSFNET]] [[backbone]] became the first national 45 [[megabits-per-second]] [[Internet network]] in 1991. Throughout its existence, [[NSFNET]] carried, at no cost to institutions, any U.S. research and education [[traffic]] that could reach it.

=== Privitization of the Internet ===

{{Quote|''It took radio broadcasters 38 years to reach an audience of 50 million, television 13 years, and the Internet just four.''}}

By 1992, the volume of [[traffic]] on [[NSFNET]] was approaching capacity, and [[NSF]] realized it did not have the resources to keep pace with the increasing usage. Consequently, the members of the consortium formed a private, non-profit organization called [[Advanced Networks and Services]] (“[[ANS]]”) to build a new [[backbone]] with [[transmission line]]s having thirty times more capacity. For the first time, a private organization &mdash; not the government &mdash; principally owned the [[transmission line]]s and [[computer]]s of a [[backbone]]. 
 
At the time that privately owned networks started appearing, general commercial activity on the [[NSFNET]] was still prohibited by an [[acceptable use policy]]. Thus, the expanding number of privately owned [[network]]s were effectively precluded from exchanging commercial [[data traffic]] with each other using the [[NSFNET]] [[backbone]]. Several commercial [[backbone operator]]s circumvented this limitation in 1991, when they established the [[Commercial Internet Exchange]] (“[[CIX]]”) to [[interconnect]] their own [[backbone]]s and exchange [[traffic]] directly. 

In 1992, the [[U.S. Congress]] enacted legislation for the [[NSF]] to allow commercial traffic on its [[network]]. Recognizing that the Internet was outpacing its ability to manage it, in May 1993, the [[NSF]] radically altered the architecture of the Internet, because the government wanted to get out of the [[backbone]] business. In its place, [[NSF]] designated a series of [[Network Access Point]]s ([[NAP]]s), where private commercial [[backbone]] operators could "[[interconnect]]." In 1994, [[NSF]] announced that four [[NAP]]s would be built, in San Francisco, New York, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. The four [[NSF]]-awarded [[NAP]]s were provided by Ameritech, PacBell, Sprint, and MFS Datanet. An additional [[interconnection]] point, known as MAE-West, was provisioned by MFS Datanet on the West Coast.

Federal support for the [[NSFNET]] [[backbone]] ended on April 30, 1995. At that time, the expanding [[network]] of commercial [[backbone]]s  permanently replaced [[NSFNET]], effectively [[privatizing]] the Internet.<ref>Michael Kende, The Digital Handshake: Connecting Internet Backbones 5 (FCC Office of Plans and Policy, Working Paper No. 32, 2000)[http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/OPP/working_papers/oppwp32.pdf].</ref>

=== Development of the World Wide Web ===

The history of [[NSFNET]] and [[NSF]]'s [[supercomputing center]]s also overlapped with the rise of [[personal computer]]s and the launch of the [[World Wide Web]] in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee and colleagues at [[CERN]], the European Organization for Nuclear Research, in Geneva, Switzerland. The [[NSF]] centers developed many tools for organizing, locating and navigating through [[information]], including one of the first widely used [[Web server]] [[application]]s. But perhaps the most spectacular success was [[Mosaic]], the first freely available [[Web browser]] to allow [[Web page]]s to include both graphics and text, which was developed in 1993 by students and staff working at the [[NSF]]-supported National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. In less than 18 months, NCSA [[Mosaic]] became the [[Web]] "[[browser]] of choice" for more than a million users and set off an [[exponential growth]] in the number of [[Web server]]s as well as [[Web surfer]]s. [[Mosaic]] was the progenitor of modern [[browser]]s such as Microsoft [[Internet Explorer]] and [[Netscape Navigator]].

The growth of the Internet has been fueled in large part by the popularity of the [[World Wide Web]].<ref>''See generally'' World Wide Web Consortium, About the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)[http://www.w3.org/Consortium].</ref> The number of [[website]]s on the Internet grew from one in 1991, to 18,000 in 1995, to fifty million in 2004, and to more than one hundred million in 2006.<ref>Marsha Walton, ''Web Reaches New Milestone: 100 Million Sites,'' CNN, Nov. 1, 2006[http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/internet/11/01/100millionwebsites/index.html].</ref> This incredible growth has been due to several factors, including the realization by businesses that they could use the Internet for commercial purposes, the decreasing cost and increasing power of [[personal computer]]s, the diminishing complexity of creating [[website]]s, and the expanding use of the [[Web]] for personal and social purposes.

From its creation to its early commercialization, most [[computer user]]s [[connect]]ed to the Internet using a “[[narrowband]]” [[dial-up telephone connection]] and a special [[modem]] to [[transmit]] [[data]] over the telephone system’s traditional copper wires, typically at a rate of up to 56 [[kilobits per second]] (“[[Kbps]]”). Much faster “[[broadband]]” [[connection]]s have subsequently been deployed using a variety of technologies. These faster technologies include [[coaxial cable]], upgraded copper [[digital subscriber line]]s, [[fiber-optic]] cables, and [[wireless]], [[satellite]], and [[broadband over power line]] ([[BPL]]) technologies.

=== Domain name registration ===

In the years following [[NSFNET]], [[NSF]] helped navigate the road to a self-governing and commercially viable Internet during a period of remarkable growth. The most visible, and most contentious, component of the Internet transition was the [[Domain name registration|registration of domain names]]. [[Domain name registration]] associates a human-readable character string (such as “nsf.gov”) with [[Internet Protocol]] ([[IP]]) [[IP address|addresses]], which [[computer]]s use to locate one another.

The [[Department of Defense]] funded early [[domain name registration]] efforts because most registrants were military users and awardees. By the early 1990s, academic institutions comprised the majority of new registrations, so the [[Federal Networking Council]] (a group of government agencies involved in [[networking]]) asked [[NSF]] to assume responsibility for non-military Internet [[Domain name registration|registration]]. In January 1993, the [[NSF]] entered into a 5-year cooperative agreement  with [[Network Solutions]], Inc. ([[NSI]]), to take over the jobs of [[domain name registration|registering]] new, nonmilitary [[domain name]]s, including those ending in [[.com]], [[.net]], and [[.org]], and running the [[authoritative root server]].<ref>[[Network Solutions]] later merged with [[VeriSign]]. The new company currently uses the [[VeriSign]] name. Under its original agreement with the [[NSF]], [[Network Solutions]] was also responsible for registering [[second-level domain name]]s in the restricted [[.gov]] and [[.edu]] [[top-level domain]]s.</ref> 

In September 1995, as the demand for Internet [[Domain name registration|registration]] became largely commercial (97%) and grew by orders of magnitude, the [[NSF]] authorized [[NSI]] to charge a fee for [[domain name registration]]. Previously, [[NSF]] had subsidized the cost of [[Domain name registration|registering]] all [[domain name]]s. At that time, there were 120,000 [[Registration|registered]] [[domain name]]s. In September 1998, when [[NSF]]’s agreement with [[NSI]] expired, the number of [[Domain name registration|registered domain names]] had passed 2 million.

=== ICANN ===

The year 1998 marked the end of [[NSF]]’s direct role in the Internet. That year, the [[network access point]]s and [[routing]] arbiter functions were transferred to the commercial sector. And after much debate, the [[Department of Commerce]]’s [[National Telecommunications and Information Administration]] formalized an agreement with the non-profit [[Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]] ([[ICANN]]) for oversight of [[domain name registration]]. Today, anyone can [[Registration|register]] a [[domain name]] through a number of [[ICANN]]-accredited [[registrar]]s.

== Internet organizations ==

The Internet is not like any other technology or industry that has ever been created before. No single organization owns, manages, or controls the Internet. It is a fusion of cooperative yet independent [[network]]s. The thousands of individual [[network]]s that make up the global Internet are owned and administered by a variety of organizations, such as private companies, universities, research labs, government agencies, and municipalities. Member [[network]]s may have presidents or CEOs, but there is no single authority for the Internet as a whole.

Substantial influence over the Internet's future now resides with the [[Internet Society]] ([[ISOC]]), a voluntary membership organization whose purpose is to promote global [[information]] exchange through Internet technology.

A number of nonprofit groups keep the Internet working through their efforts at standards development and consensus building. They include:

* [[Internet Society]] (umbrella Internet organization)
* [[Internet Architecture Board]] ([[IAB]]) (oversees technology [[standard]]s)
* [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] ([[IETF]]) (improves technology [[standard]]s)
* [[Internet Research Task Force]] ([[IRTF]]) (research into the future of the Internet)
* [[Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]] ([[ICANN]]) (manages the [[Domain Name System]] and the allocation of [[Internet Protocol]] numbers)
* [[VeriSign]] (formerly [[Network Solutions]]) (the first [[domain registrar]] and still manager of the central [[database]] and accredited [[domain name registrar|registrar]]s).

== Internet architecture ==

The Internet is often described as being comprised of multiple “layers” including: a [[physical layer]] consisting of the [[hardware]] [[infrastructure]] used to link [[computer]]s to each other; a [[logical layer]] of [[protocol]]s, such as [[TCP/IP]], that control the [[routing]] of [[data packet]]s; an [[applications layer]] consisting of the various [[program]]s and functions run by [[end user]]s, such as a [[Web browser]] that enables [[Web]]-based [[e-mail]]; and a [[content layer]], such as a [[Web page]] or [[streaming video]] [[transmission]].

The layers, are increasingly complex and specific components that are superimposed on but independent from other components. The technical [[protocol]]s that form the foundation of the Internet are open and flexible, so that virtually any form of [[network]] can connect to and share [[data]] with other [[network]]s through the Internet. As a result, the services provided through the Internet (such as the [[World Wide Web]]) are decoupled from the underlying infrastructure to a much greater extent than with other media.  Moreover, new services (such as [[Internet telephony]]) can be introduced without necessitating changes in [[transmission protocol]]s, or in the thousands of [[router]]s spread throughout the [[network]]. 

The architecture of the Internet also breaks down traditional geographic notions, such as the discrete locations of [[sender]]s and [[receiver]]s. The Internet uses a connectionless, [[adaptive routing]] system, which means that a dedicated [[end-to-end]] channel need not be established for each communication. Instead, [[traffic]] is split into "[[packet]]s" that are [[routing|routed]] dynamically between multiple points based on the most efficient route at any given moment. Many different communications can share the same physical facilities simultaneously. In addition, any "[[host]]" [[computer]] connected directly to the Internet can communicate with any other [[host]].

[[Data packet]]s may potentially travel from their originating [[computer]] [[server]] across dozens of [[network]]s and through dozens of [[router]]s before they reach an [[Internet service provider]] and arrive at a destination [[computer]]. This process of disassembly, [[transmission]], and reassembly of [[data packet]]s may take as little as a fraction of a second for a simple piece of information like a text [[e-mail]] traveling along a [[high-speed network]], or it may take several hours for a larger piece of information like a [[high-resolution]] [[video]] traveling a long distance along a low-speed [[network]].

== Today's Internet ==

{{Quote|''The Internet has evolved in three important ways over the past decade: [[content]] has evolved from relatively [[static]] [[text]] and [[web page]]s to [[multimedia]] [[high-bandwidth]] [[content]] that requires low [[latency]]; usage has rapidly globalized; and [[access]] has moved beyond [[desktop computer]]s using fixed connections to a variety of new [[device]]s using [[mobile broadband]]. Importantly, the speed of this evolution in technology and its adoption is unparalleled in human history.''<ref>[[Internet Global Growth: Lessons for the Future]], at 11.</ref>}}

"No one &mdash; not even the visionaries who created the Internet a half century ago &mdash; could have imagined the extent to which [[digital connectivity]] would spur [[innovation]], increase economic prosperity, and empower populations across the globe. Indeed, the Internet's origins in the defense community are today almost an afterthought, as its explosive growth has given it a dramatically different shape. Its creators could not have dreamed of the way and the extent to which our national and global economies have thrived, how [[innovation]]s have been enabled, and how our population has been empowered by our [[digital connectivity]]."<ref>[[Report on Securing and Growing the Digital Economy]], at 3.</ref>

Today, the Internet connects millions of individuals and organizations in a way that allows almost instantaneous communications using [[computer]]s, computerized [[mobile device]]s, and other [[network]] attachments. In March 2007 the total number of [[Internet user]]s worldwide was put at 1.114 billion, or 16.9% of the world’s population.<ref>Internet World Stats ([http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm full-text)].</ref>

The Internet has grown nearly twice as fast as [[cable television]] did in its infancy, for instance, measured in terms of ad revenues<ref>Christopher Vollmer, "Digital Darwinism" 4 (July 9, 2009) ([http://archive.today/2013.06.25-195536/http://www.booz.com/global/home/what-we-think/reports-white-papers/article-display/digital-darwinism full-text]).</ref> and with the advent of new technologies allowing long-form [[video]] on the [[Web]], has the capacity to emerge as a substitute for [[television]] as it presently exists.

{{Quote|[T]he Internet has at least three hallmarks. First, it allows for promiscuous and interactive [[flows of information]] ([[connection]]). Suddenly anyone on the [[network]] can reach anyone/everyone else, often at very low cost, and without sensitivity to distance. That person can in turn respond, immediately, or on a delay. Second, by mediating user experience, the Internet is capable of generating shared objects and spaces ([[collaboration]]). People can "meet" on a [[website]] and comment or alter the [[text]], [[picture]]s, [[video]]s, [[software]], or other [[content]] they find there. Finally, the Internet allows for additional or at least more exquisite forms of observation and manipulation than [[offline]] [[analog]]s (control). The [[architecture]] of [[network]]s and [[interface]]s is subject to alteration in a way that can greatly constrain human behavior, more and more of which is taking place through [[technology]].<ref>Ryan Calo, [[Robotics and the Lessons of Cyberlaw]], 103 Cal. L. Rev. (2015) ([http://www.californialawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Calo_Robots-Cyberlaw.pdf full-text]).</ref>}}

[[End user]]s interact with each other through an ever-expanding universe of [[content]] and applications, such as: [[e-mail]], [[instant messaging]], [[chat room]]s, commercial [[website]]s for purchasing goods and services, [[social networking]] sites, [[Web log]]s ("[[blog]]s"), [[music]] and [[video]] [[download]]s, political forums, [[voice over IP]] ("[[VoIP]]") [[telephony]] services, [[streaming video]] [[application]]s, and [[multi-player]] [[network]] [[video game]]s. Internet [[user]]s include individuals of virtually all ages and walks of life, established businesses, fledgling entrepreneurs, non-profit groups, academic and government institutions, and political organizations.

{{Quote|Unlike traditional [[mass media]], the Internet is global. Additionally, in contrast to the relatively high barriers to entry in traditional media marketplaces, the Internet offers commercial opportunities to an unusually large number of [[innovator]]s, and the rate of new service offerings and novel business models is quite high. Taken together, these characteristics give the Internet its strength as a global open platform for [[innovation]] and [[expression]].<ref>[[U.S. Department of Commerce]], [[Internet Policy Task Force]], [[Commercial Data Privacy and Innovation in the Internet Economy: A Dynamic Policy Framework]] (Dec. 16, 2010) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20101222140503/http://www.ntia.doc.gov/reports/2010/IPTF_Privacy_GreenPaper_12162010.pdf full-text]).</ref>}} 

Individual [[end user]]s (and networks of [[end user]]s) arrange for [[Internet access]] via a “last mile” connection to an [[Internet service provider]] (“[[ISP]]”), which provides, in turn, [[routing]] and connections from the [[ISP]]’s own network to the Internet.  [[Content provider|Content]] and [[ASP|applications providers]] offer their products and services to [[end user]]s via [[network operator]]s, which enable [[connectivity]] and transport into the middle, or “core,” of the Internet.

Private industry &mdash; including [[telecommunications]] companies, [[cable]] companies, and [[Internet service provider]]s &mdash; owns and operates the vast majority of the Internet’s [[infrastructure]]. The various [[network]]s that make up the Internet include the national [[backbone]] and [[regional network]]s, residential [[Internet access network]]s, and the [[network]]s run by individual businesses or [[enterprise network|“enterprise” networks]]. When a [[user]] wants to [[access]] a [[website]] or [[send]] an [[e-mail]] to someone who is connected to the Internet through a different [[ISP|service provider]], the [[data]] must be [[data transfer|transferred]] between [[network]]s. [[Data]] travels from a [[user]]’s [[device]] to the Internet through various means, such as [[coaxial cable]], [[satellite]], or [[wireless]]ly, to a [[ISP|provider]]’s facility where it is [[aggregate]]d with other [[user]]s’ [[traffic]]. [[Data]] cross between [[network]]s at [[Internet exchange point]]s, which can be either [[hub point]]s where multiple [[network]]s [[Data exchange|exchange data]] or private [[interconnection point]]s. At these [[exchange point]]s, [[computer system]]s called [[router]]s determine the optimal path for the [[data]] to reach their destination. [[Data]] travels through the national and regional [[network]]s and [[exchange point]]s around the globe, as necessary, to reach the [[recipient]]’s [[Internet service provider]] and the [[recipient]].

[[File:Internet2.jpg|700px|Internet structure]]

Before the turn of the century, most [[computer user]]s connected to the Internet using “[[narrowband]],” [[dial-up]] telephone connections and [[modem]]s to [[transmit]] [[data]] over the telephone system’s traditional copper [[wireline]]s. Much faster “[[broadband]]” connections recently have been deployed using various technologies, including [[coaxial cable]] [[wireline]]s, upgraded copper [[digital subscriber line]]s (“[[DSL]]”), and to a lesser extent [[fiber-optic]] [[wireline]]s, [[wireless]], [[satellite]], and [[broadband over power line]] (“[[BPL]]”) systems.

=== How the Internet works ===

The Internet (or any proprietary [[IP network]]) is as a set of [[router]]s connected by [[link]]s. [[Packet]]s of [[data]] get passed from one [[router]] to another, via [[link]]s. A [[packet]] is forwarded from [[router]] to [[router]], until it arrives at its destination. Typically, each [[router]] has several incoming [[link]]s on which [[packet]]s arrive, and several outgoing [[link]]s on which it can send [[packet]]s. When a [[packet]] shows up on an incoming [[link]], the [[router]] will figure out on which outgoing [[link]] the [[packet]] should be forwarded. If that outgoing [[link]] is free, the [[packet]] can be sent out on it immediately. But if the outgoing [[link]] is busy [[transmit]]ting another [[packet]], the newly arrived [[packet]] will have to wait &mdash; it will be “[[buffer]]ed” in the [[router]]’s [[memory]], waiting its turn until the outgoing [[link]] is free.

[[Buffer]]ing lets the [[router]] deal with temporary surges in [[traffic]]. The [[router]] will be [[program]]med to determine which [[packet]]s should be delayed and also, when the [[link]] is available, which [[buffer]]ed [[packet]] should be [[transmit]]ted. That is, a [[packet]] prioritization scheme is devised. This could be a simple, [[first-in, first-out]] scheme or a favor-applications-sensitive-to-packet-delay scheme, or a pay-for-priority scheme, or something else. But if [[packet]]s keep showing up faster than they can be sent out on some outgoing [[link]], the number of [[buffer]]ed [[packet]]s will grow and grow, and eventually the [[router]] will run out of [[buffer memory]].

At that point, if one more [[packet]] shows up, the [[router]] has no choice but to discard a [[packet]]. It can discard the newly arriving [[packet]], or it can make room for the new [[packet]] by discarding something else. But something has to be discarded. The [[router]] will be [[program]]med to determine which [[packet]]s should be dropped, thus creating a second [[packet]] prioritization scheme. Again, this could be a simple, [[first-in, first-out]] scheme or a favor-applications-sensitive-to-dropped-packets scheme, or a pay-for-priority scheme, or something else. Dropped [[packet]]s can be [[retransmit]]ted, but for those applications, such as voice, that require the [[packet]]s to arrive and be reassembled within a short period of time, such [[packet]] recovery might not occur in the timely fashion needed to retain service quality.

With such congestion, at least two problems may occur. One problem is dropped [[packet]]s. Some applications are more sensitive than others to dropped [[packet]]s. A second problem is “[[jitter]]” caused by the delay of certain [[packet]]s. [[Internet traffic]] is usually “[[bursty]],” with periods of relatively low activity punctuated by occasional bursts of [[packet]]s. (For example, [[browsing]] the [[Web]] generates little or no [[traffic]] while reading a page, but a burst of [[traffic]] when the [[browser]] needs to fetch a new page.)

Even if the [[router]] is [[program]]med to minimize delay by only delaying low-priority [[packet]]s when congestion absolutely requires such delay, if the high-priority [[traffic]] is [[bursty]], then low-priority [[traffic]] will usually move through the [[network]] with little delay, but will experience noticeable delay whenever there is a burst of high-priority [[traffic]]. This on-again, off-again delay is called [[jitter]]. [[Jitter]] has no affect when [[download]]ing a big file, for which one’s concern is the average [[packet]] arrival rate rather than arrival time of a particular [[packet]]. But the quality of [[application]]s like voice conferencing or [[VoIP]] &mdash; which rely on steady [[streaming]] of [[interactive]], realtime [[communication]] &mdash; can suffer a lot if there is [[jitter]].

=== Layering of the Internet ===

Many may consider the Internet and [[World Wide Web]] ([[web]]) to be synonymous; they are not. Rather, the [[web]] is one portion of the Internet, and a [[medium]] through which [[information]] may be [[access]]ed.<ref>The Internet is also used for [[email]], [[file transfer]]s, and [[instant messaging]], among other things.</ref> In conceptualizing the [[web]], some may view it as consisting solely of the [[website]]s [[accessible]] through a traditional [[search engine]] such as [[Google]]. However, this [[content]] &mdash; known as the "[[Surface Web]] &mdash; is only one portion of the [[web]]. The [[Deep Web]] refers to a class of [[content]] on the [[Internet]] that, for various technical reasons, is not indexed by [[search engine]]s, and thus would not be [[accessible]] through a traditional [[search engine]]. [[Information]] on the [[Deep Web]] includes [[content]] on private [[intranet]]s ([[internal network]]s such as those at corporations, government agencies, or universities), [[commercial database]]s like Lexis Nexis or [[Westlaw]], or [[site]]s that produce [[content]] via [[search]] [[queries]] or forms. Going even further into the [[web]], the [[Dark Web]] is the segment of the [[Deep Web]] that has been [[intentional]]ly hidden. The [[Dark Web]] is a general term that describes hidden [[Internet site]]s that [[user]]s cannot [[access]] without using special [[software]]. [[User]]s [[access]] the [[Dark Web]] with the expectation of being able to [[share information]] and/or [[file]]s with little risk of [[detection]].

* '''Surface Web.''' The magnitude of the [[web]] is growing. In the United States alone, about 100,000 new [[web domain]]s are reportedly [[Domain name registration|registered]] every day. Simultaneously, it is estimated that 40,000-70,000 [[web domain]]s go [[offline]] each day. If these estimates are accurate, there are at least 30,000 [[web domain]]s added daily.

* '''Deep Web.''' The [[Deep Web]] cannot be [[access]]ed by traditional [[search engine]]s because the [[content]] in this layer of the [[web]] is not [[index]]ed. [[Information]] here is not "static and linked to other pages" as is [[information]] on the [[Surface Web]]. As researchers have noted, “[i]t’s almost impossible to measure the size of the Deep Web. While some early estimates put the size of the Deep Web at 4,000–5,000 times larger than the surface web, the changing dynamic of how information is accessed and presented means that the Deep Web is growing exponentially and at a rate that defies quantification.”12

* '''Dark Web.''' Within the Deep Web, the Dark Web is also growing as new tools make it easier to navigate.13 Because individuals may access the Dark Web assuming little risk of detection, they may use this arena for a variety of legal and illegal activities. It is unclear, however, how much of the Deep Web is taken up by Dark Web content and how much of the Dark Web is used for legal or illegal activities.

=== Regulating network traffic === 

Traditionally, [[data traffic]] has traversed the Internet on a “[[first-in first-out]]” ("[[FIFO]]") and “best-efforts” basis. This [[protocol]] for [[data transmission]] was established principally as a result of [[DARPA]]’s original priority, which was to develop an effective technique for communications among existing [[interconnected network]]s, and which placed [[network]] survivability &mdash; or the potential for robust [[network]] operation in the face of disruption or [[infrastructure]] destruction &mdash; as the top goal in designing the overall architecture of this network of networks.

Since the Internet’s earliest days, however, computer scientists have recognized that [[network]] resources are scarce and that traffic congestion can lead to reduced performance. Although different [[data transmission protocol]]s and the viability of usage-based pricing mechanisms were explored throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the debate over [[broadband connectivity]] and [[net neutrality]] is becoming increasingly strident.

=== Compared to traditional media ===

It is useful to describe certain key features of the Internet medium and to compare it to other, more traditional media.

* The Internet supports [[many-to-many]] [[connectivity]]. A single [[user]] can receive [[information]] and [[content]] from a large number of different sources, and can also [[transmit]] his or her [[content]] to a large number of [[recipient]]s ([[one-to-many]]). Or a single [[user]] can engage with others in a [[one-to-one]] mode. Or multiple users can engage with many others ([[many-to-many]]). [[Broadcast media]] such as [[television]] and [[radio]] as well as print are [[one-to-many]] media &mdash; one [[broadcast station]] or [[publisher]] sends to many [[recipient]]s. [[Telephony]] is inherently [[one-to-one]], although party lines and [[conference calling]] change this characterization of [[telephone]]s to some extent.

* The Internet supports a high degree of [[interactivity]]. Thus, when the [[user]] is searching for [[content]] (and the [[search strategy]] is a good one), the [[content]] that he or she receives can be more explicitly customized to his or her own needs.<ref>Customization happens explicitly when a user undertakes a search for particular kinds of information, but it can happen in a less overt manner because customized content can be delivered to a user based, for example, on his or her previous requests for information.</ref> In this regard, the Internet is similar to a library in which the [[user]] can make an [[information]] request that results in the production of books and other [[media]] relevant to that request. By contrast, user choices with respect to [[television]] and [[film]] are largely limited to the [[binary]] choice of "accept or do not accept a channel," and all a [[user]] has to do to receive [[content]] is to turn on the [[television]]. The [[telephone]] is an inherently [[interactive medium]], but one without the [[many-to-many]] [[connectivity]] of the Internet.

* The Internet is highly decentralized. Indeed, the basic design philosophy underlying the Internet has been to push management decisions to as decentralized a level as possible. Thus, if one imagines the Internet as a number of communicating [[user]]s with [[infrastructure]] in the middle facilitating that communication, management authority rests mostly (but not exclusively) with the [[user]]s rather than the [[infrastructure]] &mdash; which is simply a bunch of pipes that carry whatever [[traffic]] the [[user]]s wish to send and receive. (How long this decentralization will last is an open question.) By contrast, [[television]] and the [[telephone]] operate under a highly centralized authority and facilities. Furthermore, the international nature of the Internet makes it difficult for one governing board to gain the consensus necessary to impose policy, although a variety of transnational organizations are seeking to address issues of [[Internet governance]] globally.

* The Internet is intrinsically a highly [[anonymous]] [[medium]]. That is, nothing about the way in which [[message]]s and [[information]] are passed through the Internet requires identification of the party doing the sending. One important consequence of the Internet's [[anonymity]] is that it is quite difficult to differentiate between [[adult]] and [[minor]] users of the Internet. A second consequence is that technological approaches that seek to differentiate between [[adult]]s and [[minor]]s generally entail some loss of [[privacy]] for [[adult]]s who are legitimate customers of certain [[sexually explicit]] materials to which [[minor]]s do not have legitimate [[access]].

* The capital costs of becoming an Internet [[publisher]] are relatively low, and thus anyone can establish a global [[Web presence]] at the cost of a few hundred dollars (as long as it conforms to the [[terms of service]] of the [[Web host]]). Further, for the cost of a subscription to an [[Internet service provider]] ([[ISP]]), one can [[interact]] with others through [[instant message]]s and [[e-mail]] without having to establish a [[Web presence]] at all. The costs of reaching a large, geographically dispersed audience may be about the same as those required to reach a small, geographically limited audience, and in any event do not rise proportionately with the size of the audience.

* Because nearly anyone can put [[information]] onto the [[Internet]], the appropriateness, utility, and even veracity of [[information]] on the Internet are generally uncertified and hence unverified. With important exceptions (generally associated with institutions that have reputations to maintain), the Internet is a "buyer beware" [[information]] marketplace, and the unwary user can be misinformed, tricked, and seduced or led astray when he or she encounters [[information publisher]]s that are not reputable.

* The Internet is a highly convenient [[medium]], and is becoming more so. Given the vast [[information]] resources that it offers coupled with [[search]] capabilities for finding many things quickly, it is no wonder that for many people the Internet is the [[information]] resource of first resort.

== Vulnerabilities ==

The architecture of the [[ARPANET]], on which the Internet is based, assumes that the entities connected to it are in fixed locations and can be [[trusted]]; consequently, the design is open and [[vulnerable]]. Today, entities connected to the Internet face constant [[attack]]s that may be launched from anywhere in the world. Federal, State, and local governments, industry, and consumers already spend billions of dollars each year on preventing and recovering from [[attack]]s. The number of [[attack]]s and their potential to cause damage are both expected to rise in the years ahead. The connection of millions of [[mobile device]]s to the [[traffic]] load further stresses the Internet, increasing its [[fragility]] and the difficulty of managing its [[complexity]].

Because vital interests of the United States now depend on [[secure]], [[reliable]], [[high-speed]] [[Internet connectivity]], Internet [[vulnerabilities]] and limitations are a growing [[national security]] problem. They also complicate the development of [[next-generation network]]ing [[application]]s that are important to Federal missions and society at large.

{{Quote|The [[infrastructure]] of the Internet is another possible [[terrorist]] [[target]], and given the Internet's public prominence, it may appeal to [[terrorist]]s as an attractive [[target]]. The Internet could be seriously [[degrade]]d for a relatively short period of time by a [[denial-of-service attack]], but such impact is unlikely to be long lasting. The Internet itself is a densely [[connected]] [[network]] of [[network]]s that [[automatic]]ally [[route]]s around [[link]]s that become unavailable, which means that a large number of important [[node]]s would have to be destroyed simultaneously to bring it down for an extended period of time. [[Destruction]] of some key [[Internet node]]s could result in reduced [[network capacity]] and slow traffic across the Internet, but the ease with which [[Internet communication]]s can be [[reroute]]d would minimize the long-term damage.<ref>[[Information Technology for Counterterrorism: Immediate Actions and Future Possibilities]], at 16-17.</ref>}}

== Employment statistics ==

The Internet is creating new kinds of jobs. Between 1998 and 2008, the number of domestic [[IT]] jobs grew by 26 percent, four times faster than U.S. employment as a whole. According to one estimate, as of 2009, advertising-supported Internet services directly or indirectly employed three million Americans, 1.2 million of whom hold jobs that did not exist two decades ago.<ref>[[Interactive Advertising Bureau]], Economic Value of the Advertising-Supported Internet Ecosystem (June 10, 2009) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090806170408/http://www.iab.net/media/file/Economic-Value-Report.pdf full-text]).</ref> By 2018, [[IT]] employment is expected to grow by another 22 percent.

==References==
<references />

== See also ==

<div style="{{column-count|3}}">

* [Internet backbone provider]]
* [[Internet connection]]
* [[Internet connectivity]]
* [[Internet Engineering Steering Group]]
* [[Internet Engineering Task Force]]
* [[Internet exchange point]]
* [[Internet filtering]]
* [[Internet gateway]]
* [[Internet governance]]
* [[Internet information location tool]]
* [[Internet location]]
* [[Internet marketing]]
* [[Internet meme]]
* [[Internet of Things]]
* [[Internet operator]]
* [[Internet Over Cable: Defining the Future in Terms of the Past]]
* [[Internet peering point]]
* [[Internet Policy Task Force]]
* [[Internet privacy]]
* [[Internet Protocol]]
* [[Internet Protocol cloud]]
* [[Internet protocol number]]
* [[Internet protocol suite]]
* [[Internet radio]]
* [[Internet Relay Chat]]
* [[Internet Research Task Force]]
* [[Internet retailer]]
* [[Internet security]]
* [[Internet security protocol]]
* [[Internet service]]
* [[Internet service provider]]
* [[Internet surveillance]]
* [[Internet taxes]]
* [[Internet Tax Freedom Act of 1998]]
* [[Internet tax moratorium]]
* [[Internet Tax Non-Discrimination Act of 2003]]
* [[Internet telephony]]
* [[Internet television]]
* [[Internet traffic management]]
* [[Internet user]]
* [[Internet video]]
* [[Internet voting]]
* [[Internet voting machine]]
* [[Internet voting system]]
* [[Internet-based TRS]]
* [[Internet-ready device]]
* [[Internet2]]
* [[InternetNZ]]
* [[Internetworking]]
* [[Internetwork layer]]

</div>

== External resources ==

* Barry Leitner et al., "Brief History of the Internet" (1997) ([http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml full-text]).
* Vint Cerf, "A Brief History of the Inter

</div>

== External resources ==

* Barry Leitner et al., "Brief History of the Internet" (1997) ([http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml full-text]).
* Vint Cerf, "A Brief History of the Internet & Related Networks" ([https://www.internetsociety.org/internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet-related-networks full-text]).
* Rajiv C. Shah & Jay P. Kesan, "The Privatization of the Internet's Backbone Network" (2007) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20051216134521/http://www.governingwithcode.org/journal_articles/pdf/Backbone.pdf full-text]).
* Mitch Waldrop, "DARPA and the Internet Revolution" ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110701231912/http://www.darpa.mil/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=2554 full-text]).
[[Category:Internet]]
[[Category:Technology]]
[[Category:Definition]]
[[Category:Washington]]